MODALS

Semua auxiliary verbs "kecuali be, do dan have" disebut modals. Tidak seperti auxiliary verbs lainnya, modals juga berfungsi sebagai kata kerja Bantu dan tidak dapat berdiri sendiri. Perhatikan contoh-contoh Modals di bawah ini beserta fungsi dari Modals melalui contoh kalimat yang diberikan.

Can

• They can control their own budgets. (kemampuan/kemungkinan)
• Can I smoke here? (Minta Izin)
• Can you help me?  (Permintaan)

Could

• Could I borrow your dictionary? (Minta Izin)
• Could you say it again more slowly? (Permintaan)
• We could try to fix it ourselves. (Saran)
• I think we could have another Gulf War. (Kemungkinan)
• He gave up his old job so he could work for us. (Kemampuan)

May

• May I have another cup of coffee? (Minta Izin)
• China may become a major economic power. (Kemungkinan)

Might

• They might give us a 10% discount. (Kemungkinan)

Must

• We must say good-bye now. (Keharusan)
• They mustn't disrupt the work more than necessary. (Larangan)

Ought to

• We ought to employ a professional writer. (Menyarankan)

Shall

(jarang dipakai di Amerika)

• Shall I help you with your luggage? (Menawarkan)
• Shall we say 2.30 then? (Menyarankan)
• Shall I do that or will you? (Meminta)

Should

• We should sort out this problem at once. (Menyarankan)
• I think we should check everything again. (Merekomendasikan)
• Profits should increase next year.  (Prediksi tak tentu)

Will

• I can't see any taxis so I'll walk. (Keputusan Spontan)
• I'll do that for you if you like. (Menawarkan)
• I'll get back to you first thing on Monday. (Janji)
• Profits will increase next year.  (Prediksi tak tentu)

Would

• Would you mind if I brought a colleague with me? (Minta Izin)
• Would you pass the salt please? (Permintaan)
• Would you mind waiting a moment? (Permintaan)
• "Would three o'clock suit you?" - "That'd be fine." (Mengatur)
• Would you like to play golf this Friday? (Mengundang)
• "Would you prefer tea or coffee?" - "I'd like tea please." (Merujuk)

Modal auxiliary verbs selalu diikuti oleh bentuk kata kerja pertama.

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VOCABULARY

A vocabulary is commonly defined as "all the words known and used by a particular person".^[1] Unfortunately, this definition does not take into account a range of issues involved in knowing a word.

Types of vocabulary

Listed in order of most ample to most limited:^[2][3]

Reading vocabulary

A person's reading vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when reading. This is the largest type of vocabulary simply because it includes the other three.

Listening vocabulary

A person's listening vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when listening to speech. This vocabulary is aided in size by context and tone of voice.

Writing vocabulary

A person's writing vocabulary is all the words he or she can employ in writing. Contrary to the previous two vocabulary types, the writing vocabulary is stimulated by its user.

Speaking vocabulary

A person's speaking vocabulary is all the words he or she can use in speech. Due to the spontaneous nature of the speaking vocabulary, words are often misused. This misuse – though slight and unintentional – may be compensated by facial expressions, tone of voice, or hand gestures.

Focal vocabulary

"Focal vocabulary" is a specialized set of terms and distinctions that is particularly important to a certain group; those with a particular focus of experience or activity. A lexicon, or vocabulary, is a language's dictionary, its set of names for things, events, and ideas. Some linguists believe that lexicon influences people's perception on things, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis. For example, the Nuer of Sudan have an elaborate vocabulary to describe cattle. The Nuer have dozens of names for cattle because of the cattle's particular histories, economies, and environments. This kind of comparison has elicited some linguistic controversy, as with the number of "Eskimo words for snow". English speakers can also elaborate their snow and cattle vocabularies when the need arises.^[4][5]

Vocabulary growth

Initially, in the infancy phase, vocabulary growth requires no effort. Infants hear words and mimic them, eventually associating them with objects and actions. This is the listening vocabulary. The speaking vocabulary follows, as a child's thoughts become more reliant on its ability to express itself without gestures and mere sounds. Once the reading and writing vocabularies are attained – through questions and education – the anomalies and irregularities of language can be discovered.
In first grade, an advantaged student (i.e. a literate student) knows about twice as many words as a disadvantaged student. Generally, this gap does not tighten. This translates into a wide range of vocabulary size by age five or six, at which time an English-speaking child will know about 2,500–5,000 words. An average student learns some 3,000 words per year, or approximately eight words per day.^[6]
After leaving school, vocabulary growth reaches a plateau. People may then expand their vocabularies by engaging in activities such as reading, playing word games, and participating in vocabulary programs.

The importance of a vocabulary

• An extensive vocabulary aids expressions and communication.
• Vocabulary size has been directly linked to reading comprehension.^[7]
• Linguistic vocabulary is synonymous with thinking vocabulary.^[7]
• A person may be judged by others based on his or her vocabulary.

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Clarity and meaning

The primary reason why your instructors frown on the passive voice is that they often have to guess what you mean. Sometimes, the confusion is minor. Let's look again at that sentence from a student's paper on Homer's The Odyssey:

When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.
Like many passive constructions, this sentence lacks explicit reference to the actor—it doesn't tell the reader who or what invaded Penelope's house. The active voice clarifies things:
After suitors invaded Penelope's house, she had to think of ways to fend them off.

Thus many instructors—the readers making sense of your writing—prefer that you use the active voice. They want you to specify who or what is doing the action. Compare the following two examples from an anthropology paper on a Laotian village to see if you agree.
(passive) A new system of drug control laws was set up. (By whom?)
(active) The Lao People's Revolutionary Party set up a new system of drug control laws.
Here's another example, from the same paper, that illustrates the lack of precision that can accompany the passive voice:
Gender training was conducted in six villages, thus affecting social relationships.
And a few pages later:
Plus, marketing links were being established.
In both paragraphs, the writer never specifies the actors for those two actions (Who did the gender training? Who established marketing links?). Thus the reader has trouble appreciating the dynamics of these social interactions, which depend upon the actors conducting and establishing these things.
The following example, once again from that paper on The Odyssey, typifies another instance where an instructor might desire more precision and clarity:
Although Penelope shares heroic characteristics with her husband, Odysseus, she
is not considered a hero.
Who does not consider Penelope a hero? It's difficult to tell, but the rest of that paragraph suggests that the student does not consider Penelope a hero (the topic of the paper). The reader might also conceivably think that the student is referring to critics, scholars, or modern readers of The Odyssey. One might argue that the meaning comes through here—the problem is merely stylistic. Yet style affects how your reader understands your argument and content. Awkward or unclear style prevents your reader from appreciating the ideas that are so clear to you when you write. Thus knowing how your reader might react enables you to make more effective choices when you revise. So after you identify instances of the passive, you should consider whether your use of the passive inhibits clear understanding of what you mean.
Verbs are also said to be either active (The executive committee approved the new policy) or passive (The new policy was approved by the executive committee) in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a be-er or a do-er and the verb moves the sentence along. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er or a be-er, but is acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was approved). Computerized grammar checkers can pick out a passive voice construction from miles away and ask you to revise it to a more active construction. There is nothing inherently wrong with the passive voice, but if you can say the same thing in the active mode, do so (see exceptions below). Your text will have more pizzazz as a result, since passive verb constructions tend to lie about in their pajamas and avoid actual work.
We find an overabundance of the passive voice in sentences created by self-protective business interests, magniloquent educators, and bombastic military writers (who must get weary of this accusation), who use the passive voice to avoid responsibility for actions taken. Thus "Cigarette ads were designed to appeal especially to children" places the burden on the ads — as opposed to "We designed the cigarette ads to appeal especially to children," in which "we" accepts responsibility. At a White House press briefing we might hear that "The President was advised that certain members of Congress were being audited" rather than "The Head of the Internal Revenue service advised the President that her agency was auditing certain members of Congress" because the passive construction avoids responsibility for advising and for auditing. One further caution about the passive voice: we should not mix active and passive constructions in the same sentence: "The executive committee approved the new policy, and the calendar for next year's meetings was revised" should be recast as "The executive committee approved the new policy and revised the calendar for next year's meeting."
Take the quiz (below) as an exercise in recognizing and changing passive verbs.

The passive voice does exist for a reason, however, and its presence is not always to be despised. The passive is particularly useful (even recommended) in two situations:

• When it is more important to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon: The unidentified victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours.
• When the actor in the situation is not important: The aurora borealis can be observed in the early morning hours.

The passive voice is especially helpful (and even regarded as mandatory) in scientific or technical writing or lab reports, where the actor is not really important but the process or principle being described is of ultimate importance. Instead of writing "I poured 20 cc of acid into the beaker," we would write "Twenty cc of acid is/was poured into the beaker." The passive voice is also useful when describing, say, a mechanical process in which the details of process are much more important than anyone's taking responsibility for the action: "The first coat of primer paint is applied immediately after the acid rinse."
We use the passive voice to good effect in a paragraph in which we wish to shift emphasis from what was the object in a first sentence to what becomes the subject in subsequent sentences.

The executive committee approved an entirely new policy for dealing with academic suspension and withdrawal. The policy had been written by a subcommittee on student behavior. If students withdraw from course work before suspension can take effect, the policy states, a mark of "IW" . . . .

The paragraph is clearly about this new policy so it is appropriate that policy move from being the object in the first sentence to being the subject of the second sentence. The passive voice allows for this transition.†

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POSSIVE VOICE

A passive construction occurs when you make the object of an action into the subject of a sentence. That is, whoever or whatever is performing the action is not the grammatical subject of the sentence. Take a look at this passive rephrasing of a familiar joke:

Why was the road crossed by the chicken?

Who is doing the action in this sentence? The chicken is the one doing the action in this sentence, but the chicken is not in the spot where you would expect the grammatical subject to be. Instead, the road is the grammatical subject. The more familiar phrasing (why did the chicken cross the road?) puts the actor in the subject position, the position of doing something—the chicken (the actor/doer) crosses the road (the object). We use active verbs to represent that "doing," whether it be crossing roads, proposing ideas, making arguments, or invading houses (more on that shortly).
Once you know what to look for, passive constructions are easy to spot. Look for a form of "to be" (is, are, am , was, were, has been, have been, had been, will be, will have been, being) followed by a past participle. (The past participle is a form of the verb that typically, but not always, ends in "-ed." Some exceptions to the "-ed" rule are words like "paid" (not "payed") and "driven." (not "drived"). Here's a sure-fire formula for identifying the passive voice:

form of "to be" + past participle = passive voice

For example:
The metropolis has been scorched by the dragon's fiery breath.
When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.
Not every sentence that contains a form of "have" or "be" is passive! Forms of the word "have" can do several different things in English. For example, in the sentence "John has to study all afternoon," "has" is not part of a past-tense verb. It's a modal verb, like "must," "can," or "may"—these verbs tell how necessary it is to do something (compare "I have to study" versus "I may study"). And forms of "be" are not always passive, either—"be" can be the main verb of a sentence that describes a state of being, rather than an action. For example, the sentence "John is a good student" is not passive; "is" is simply describing John's state of being. The moral of the story: don't assume that any time you see a form of "have" and a form of "to be" together, you are looking at a passive sentence.
Need more help deciding whether a sentence is passive? Ask yourself whether there is an action going on in the sentence. If so, what is at the front of the sentence? Is it the person or thing that does the action? Or is it the person or thing that has the action done to it? In a passive sentence, the object of the action will be in the subject position at the front of the sentence. As discussed above, the sentence will also contain a form of be and a past participle. If the subject appears at all, it will usually be at the end of the sentence, often in a phrase that starts with "by." Take a look at this example:

The fish was caught by the seagull.

If we ask ourselves whether there's an action, the answer is yes: a fish is being caught. If we ask what's at the front of the sentece, the actor or the object of the action, it's the object: the fish, unfortunately for it, got caught, and there it is at the front of the sentence. The thing that did the catching—the seagull—is at the end, after "by." There's a form of be (was) and a past participle (caught). This sentence is passive.

Let's briefly look at how to change passive constructions into active ones. You can usually just switch the word order, making the actor and subject one by putting the actor up front:
The metropolis has been scorched by the dragon's fiery breath.
becomes
The dragon scorched the metropolis with his fiery breath.
When her house was invaded, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.
becomes
After suitors invaded her house, Penelope had to think of ways to delay her remarriage.

To repeat, the key to identifying the passive voice is to look for both a form of "to be" and a past participle, which usually, but not always, ends in "-ed."

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NOUN PHRASE

Noun phrases normally consist of a head noun, which is optionally modified ("premodified" if the modifier appears before the noun; "postmodified" if the modifier follows the noun). Possible modifiers include:

• determiners: articles (the, a), demonstratives (this, that), numerals (two, five, etc.), possessives (my, their, etc.), and quantifiers (some, many, etc.). In English, determiners are usually placed before the noun;
• adjectives (the red ball); or
• complements, in the form of a prepositional phrase (such as: the student of physics), or a That-clause (the claim that the earth is round);
• modifiers; pre-modifiers if before the noun and usually either as nouns (the university student) or adjectives (the beautiful lady), or post-modifiers if after the noun. A postmodifier may be either a prepositional phrase (the man with long hair) or a relative clause (the house where I live). The difference between modifiers and complements is that complements complete the meaning of the noun; complements are necessary, whereas modifiers are optional because they add information about the noun.

Noun phrases can make use of an apposition structure. This means that the elements in the noun phrase are not in a head-modifier relationship, but in a relation of equality. An example of this is I, Caesar, declare ..., where "Caesar" and "I" do not modify each other.^{[citation needed]}
The head of a noun phrase can be implied, as in "The Bold and the Beautiful" or Robin Hood's "rob from the rich and give to the poor"; an implied noun phrase is most commonly used as a generic plural referring to human beings.^[2] Another example of noun phrase with implied head is I choose the cheaper of the two.^{[citation needed]}
That noun phrases can be headed by elements other than nouns—for instance, pronouns (They came) or determiners (I'll take these)—has given rise to the postulation of a determiner phrase instead of a noun phrase. The English language is stricter than some other languages with regard to possible noun phrase heads. German, for instance, allows adjectives as heads of noun phrases^{[citation needed]}, as in Gib mir die Alten for Give me the olds (i.e. old ones).
In English, for some purposes, noun phrases can be treated as single grammatical units. This is most noticeable in the syntax of the English genitive case. In a phrase such as The king of Sparta's wife, the possessive clitic "-'s" is not added to the king who actually has the wife, but instead to Sparta, as the end of the whole phrase. The clitic modifies the entire phrase the king of Sparta.
Noun phrases are prototypically used for acts of reference as in "The blonde girl shouts" or "She kissed the man". Also possible, but found less often, is the use of noun phrases for predication, as in "Suzy is a blonde girl". Note that in English the use of the copula is indicates the use of a noun phrase as predicate, but other languages may not require the use of the copula. Finally, noun phrases are used for identifications like "The murderer was the butler", where no ascription is taking place. The possibility for a noun phrase to play the role of subject and predicate leads to the constructions of syllogisms.

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BANNER AND POSTER

1. Banner
A. Definition of Banner
A banner is a flag or other piece of cloth bearing a symbol, logo, slogan or other message. Banner-making is an ancient craft.The word derives from late Latin bandum, a cloth out of which a flag is made (Latin banderia, Italian bandiera), (Spanish bandera). A banner is a flag or pennant that signals something.
B. Function Of banner
They are often connected to a pole or rope such as signal flags on a ship which give conditions or status of the ship(s).. Some banners are used for advertising or names of colleges or universities
C. Example to Barner








Question
1. What show does the banner inform?
2. Who are the actors and the actresses of the show?
3. Where will it take place?
4. When will it be held?
5. What is the price of the ticket?

2. Poster
A. Definition Of poster
A poster is any piece of printed paper designed to be attached to a wall or vertical surface. Typically posters include both textual and graphic elements, although a poster may be either wholly graphical or wholly text. Posters are designed to be both eye-catching and convey information. Posters may be used for many purposes They are a frequent tool of advertisers (particularly of events, musicians and films), propagandists , protestors and other groups trying to communicate a message. Posters are also used for reproductions of artwork , particularly famous works, and are generally low-cost compared to original artwork. Another type of poster is the educational poster, which may be about a particular subject for educational purposes.
B. Function of Poster
The main function of a poster is to capture a moving audience with a message. When designing a poster, plan its design carefully. You will have a short amount of time to attract and hold your readers attention. Think about the one aspect of the information that must convey the message and plan your design around that.
C. Example
A poster should:
• Have type large enough to be viewed to 10-15 times your format width.
• Have a simple and clear layout so your reader knows where to find the information.
• Include all important information such as date, time, location, contact name and telephone number.
• Have a dominate elements such as a headline or image that will quickly catch your reader's eye.
• Have the most important message emphasized by size, color, or value.
• . Have art that is related to the message.
• . Have the type and imagery arranged in a logical, functional sequence.
• Have bold, intense colors to enhance your message so that it can be easily seen from a distance.




D. Question


1. What Do you see in the poster ?
2. What does the poster try to say?
3. Whatdoes the picture in the poster try to show or say?
4. What is the meaning of the message in the poster?
5. What does “watch your step “ mean?

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